Motivation Is More Than Just Willpower

When students struggle to stay engaged or persist through challenges, it’s easy to assume they lack interest or willpower (thanks to the Fundamental Attribution Error bias). But motivation is far more complex. In the learning sciences, motivation is understood as a dynamic and context-sensitive process shaped by many factors—including the learning environment, students’ personal and cultural values, their prior experiences, and temporary emotional states and life context. Motivation can fluctuate from moment to moment, and it can also evolve over time. By understanding what drives student motivation, educators can design learning experiences that support both immediate engagement and long-term persistence.

Theories of Motivation

Expectancy-Value Theory: Belief and Relevance
Expectancy-value theory suggests that students are more motivated to engage in a task when they believe they can succeed (expectancy) and when they see the task as valuable (value). Expectancy is influenced by many factors, such as prior success or encouragement from an instructor (or lack thereof). Value can also take many forms: a task might be interesting, useful for future goals, aligned with personal or cultural identity, or simply enjoyable. For example, a student is likely more motivated to learn algebra if they believe they’re capable of doing it and if they see how it connects to their goal of becoming an engineer. Without both an expectation of success and value for the task, learners often lack motivation.

Self-Efficacy: Confidence in One’s Abilities
Self-efficacy, a concept developed by Albert Bandura, refers to a learner’s belief in their ability to succeed at a specific task. High self-efficacy leads students to take on challenges, persist through difficulty, and recover from setbacks. Low self-efficacy, on the other hand, can lead to avoidance and disengagement. Self-efficacy is shaped by past experiences, feedback from others, and opportunities to observe peers succeed. Educators can support self-efficacy by providing achievable challenges, celebrating progress, and modeling problem-solving strategies. For more, see my article summary of Schunk (1991) Self-Efficacy and Academic Motivation.

Mindset Theory: Beliefs About Intelligence
Mindset theory, popularized by Carol Dweck, focuses on how students think about their own intelligence. Students with a growth mindset believe that ability can be developed through effort and learning, while those with a fixed mindset believe ability is a fixed trait. A growth mindset supports resilience and a willingness to take on challenges, while a fixed mindset can lead to fear of failure and avoidance of difficult tasks. Educators can foster a growth mindset by emphasizing progress over current performance, praising productive effort and strategy, and normalizing mistakes as part of the learning process. For more, see my article summary of Dweck & Yeager (2019) Mindsets: A View from Two Eras.

Implications for Supporting Students

Activity Authenticity: Making Learning Meaningful
One way to support motivation is by designing learning activities that feel authentic and meaningful to students (i.e., the value side of Expectancy-Value theory). When tasks connect to real-world problems, personal interests, or cultural values, students are more likely to see them as worth doing. For example, a math project that involves creating a personal budget may feel more relevant than a worksheet of abstract problems. Authentic activities help students see the value in what they’re learning and how it connects to their lives.

Feedback and Encouragement: Building Confidence and Belonging
Instructor feedback plays a powerful role in shaping motivation, especially when students don’t have much experience to base their self-efficacy upon. Supportive, specific feedback can reinforce students’ sense of competence and help them see their progress. Encouragement that focuses on effort, strategy, and improvement—rather than just outcomes—can boost both self-efficacy and growth mindset. Instructors also influence motivation by creating a classroom climate where all students feel respected, valued, and capable of success. For more on feedback, see my article summary of Rich et al. (2016) Belief in Corrective Feedback and my chapter summary of Schaeffer et al. (2016) Feedback via Educational Technology.

Grit and Perseverance: Supporting Productive Struggle
While motivation theories help us understand what drives engagement, they also remind us that persistence isn’t just about grit. Grit—sustained effort toward long-term goals, especially through difficult experiences—is important, but it must be supported by a learning environment that provides encouragement, scaffolding, and opportunities for success. Students are more likely to persevere when they believe their efforts will pay off, when they feel supported by their teachers and peers, and when they’re working on tasks that matter to them. For more on productive failure, see my article summary of Kapur (2016) Productive Failure, Productive Success, Unproductive Failure, and Unproductive Success.

To view more posts about learning sciences, see a list of topics on the Intro to the Learning Sciences: Series Introduction.