Learning Environments as Engines of Learning

In the learning sciences, the learning environment is not just a place—it’s part of the learning process itself. Learning environments include not only learners, but also the tools they use, the people they interact with (such as peers, instructors, and mentors), and the broader social and cultural context, including families and communities. These environments shape what is valued, how content is learned, and who feels empowered to participate. Learning scientists design effective learning environments by intentionally shaping these elements to support engagement, equity, and deep understanding.

Theories of Community and Learning Environments

Cognitive Apprenticeship: Making Cognitive Tasks Visible
Cognitive apprenticeship is a type of instruction that models expert problem-solving and skills so that learners can observe, practice, and internalize them to become experts themselves. Originating from traditional apprentice-based training, like for midwifery and tannery, this theory emphasizes modeling, coaching, and scaffolding within authentic cognitive tasks. Importantly, this theory deprioritizes lectures and, instead, encourages building knowledge through hands-on observation and experience. Instructors demonstrate how to approach complex problems, support learners as they try it themselves, and gradually reduce support as learners gain independence. This approach is particularly powerful in fields that require creativity and innovation, in which there is not one correct way to solve problems or apply skills.

Situated Learning and Communities of Practice
Situated learning, introduced by Lave and Wenger, argues that learning is inherently social and context-dependent. It happens through participation in communities of practice—groups of people who share a concern or passion and learn how to improve through regular interaction. In this view, learning is not just acquiring knowledge but becoming a member of a community that builds knowledge together. For educators, this means creating opportunities for students to engage in authentic practices and to see themselves as productive participants in a disciplinary community. For more, see my book summary of Lave & Wegner (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation.

Activity Theory: Learning Through Mediated Action
Activity theory, rooted in the work of Vygotsky and expanded by Engeström, provides a framework for understanding how learning is shaped by the tools, goals, rules, and social structures of learning environments. It suggests that learning is shaped by what the learner is trying to do, the tools they’re using, the people they’re working with, and the rules or expectations of the setting. For example, in a middle school science class, students might work in groups to design and test a water filtration system. Their learning is influenced by the materials they use (like sand or charcoal), the goal of creating a working filter, the guidance of their teacher, and the way they collaborate with classmates. Activity theory helps educators think about how all these parts work together to support or hinder learning, and how to design classroom experiences that make learning more meaningful and connected to real-world practices. For more, see my article summary of Engeström & Sannino (2010) Theory of Expansive Learning.

Implications for Building Community and Learning Environments

Manipulatives and Artifacts: Tools for Thinking
One way these theories come to life in practice is through the use of manipulatives and artifacts—physical or digital tools that support learning by making abstract ideas concrete and supporting multiple people to work on a shared task. For example, in computer science, these tools might include tangible programming tools, like robotics or e-textiles, that help the learner, or a group of learners, visualize what the output of a program is. These tools mediate learning, allowing students to externalize and refine their ideas.

Legitimate Peripheral Participation: Pathways Into Practice
Legitimate peripheral participation is a concept from situated learning that describes how newcomers become part of a community of practice. The idea is that learners don’t need to be experts in a community right away to belong—they can start by participating in simpler, low-risk tasks that are still meaningful and connected to the larger goals of the group. Over time, as they gain experience and confidence, they take on more complex and central roles. Legitimate peripheral participation is valuable for both young people, who may not already be part of a community of practice, and professionals from other communities of practice, who are branching out to learn new skills. This framework is especially useful for designing inclusive learning environments, where all learners can contribute and grow. Instructors can support this process by creating entry points into complex practices, recognizing diverse forms of participation, and fostering a sense of belonging. For more, see my book summary of Lave & Wegner (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation.

Boundary Objects: Connecting Communities
Boundary objects are artifacts that serve as points of connection between different communities or perspectives. They are flexible enough to be interpreted differently by different groups, yet robust enough to maintain a common purpose. For example, in computer science education, programmable e-textiles (like clothing with lights or sensors) can bring together computer scientists and dancers. The dancers focus on movement and expression, while the computer scientists focus on programming the lights or sounds. Together, they create a performance where both coding and choreography play a role. The e-textiles act as a shared tool that helps both groups communicate and create something new together. Boundary objects like these help bridge gaps between disciplines and support teamwork and shared understanding.

If you’re interested in supporting online learning environments, please see my article summary of Stürmer et al. (2018) Relationship Building for Higher Distance Education.

To view more posts about learning sciences, see a list of topics on the Intro to the Learning Sciences: Series Introduction.